Inform citizens about the risk they may face and about possible actions and measures, they can take to reduce vulnerability and better prepare themselves

General association with cultural factors: Norms/values, Customs/traditions/rituals, Worldviews, Open-mindedness, Individual/collective memory, Local knowledge, Languages, Communication, Livelihoods, Rule of law, Power relations, Attitudes toward authorities, Attitudes toward the media, Attitudes toward environmental issues, Gender roles, Age-related roles, Ethnicity, Educational system, Density of active citizenship, Social networks, Social control, Social exclusion, Access and use of infrastructure/services

Implementation steps:

A. Employ risk communication practitioners to design the disaster communication strategies as this may help counter the multiple effects of selective media coverage on people's risk perceptions. Related cultural factors: Communication

B. Consider the influence of the affective processes on people’s risk perception, when communicating risk and crisis information, as emotions can either increase or lower the perception of the risk. Use altruistic emotions to enhance motivation for preparedness. Related cultural factors: Communication

C. Consider the way information is provided regarding the risk as public communication influences citizen’s level of perceived risk regardless of whether the information is provided by authorities or by experts. Related cultural factors: Communication

D. Carefully asses all public communication activities concerning risks, as to avoid unnecessary panic on one hand and unpreparedness and complacency on the other. Related cultural factors: Communication

E. Utilize the ecosystem approach to disaster communication, which enables the set-up of a more efficient multichannel crisis management, which is not only focused on communication but also considers preparedness, alerts and recovery. Related cultural factors: Communication

F. Citizens should be made aware of the existence, role and functionalities of a disaster management system. They should also be convinced that the technology and the DMAs’ capacities are credible. The warning messages should use the local language and wording. Related cultural factors: Communication, Languages

G. Provide consistent information by using single messages from single source, to create trust in institutions, while remaining sensitive to cultural differences, as well as the abundance of available information and the way it is processed by target groups. Related cultural factors: Communication

H. To improve situational awareness, address citizens as partners, who can report information on the situation on the ground through different trusted communication channels. Related cultural factors: Communication

I. Use a participatory approach to communication, whereby the top-down messages (from an expert to a lay audience) are complemented by feedback and inquests, also answered respectfully. Related cultural factors: Communication

J. Support communication between citizens and local authorities to enable authorities to integrate citizens' preferences into their strategic planning. Related cultural factors: Communication

K. Provide timely consistently, and regularly updated risk and crises messages anddeliver it throughmultiple channels. Related cultural factors: Communication

L. Develop communication strategies pre and post disaster according to the specificities of each disaster, depending on the perception and behavioural adaptation of the citizens to the disaster. Related cultural factors: Communication

M. Use media to educate people on matters related to disaster management. Related cultural factors: Communication

N. Use media to promote a model of ‘shared responsibility’, in which citizens are encouraged to play an active role in the production and sharing of crisis information. Allow citizens to collect and share quantitative and qualitative information related to the environment of existing public places as well as their well-being in those placesRelated cultural factors: Communication, Social networks

O. Withholding information in the response stage from and/or lying to affected communities should be avoided at all costs, as well as delaying communication without a serious reason as they may create panic or lead to lack of trust in authorities. Related cultural factors: Communication

P. Communicate quickly and do not allow rumours to take over. Offer up-to-date, truthful, clear and concise information. Take into account that the media also plays the role of a watchdog, which scrutinizes the actions of public authorities. Related cultural factors: Communication

Q. Investigate the causes of the disaster and offer the results truthfully to the public. Related cultural factors: Communication

R. Provide timely and accurate information about the actual level of risk while coaching people about preparedness activities, they can engage in to minimize the potential harm and about activities they should perform in the event of a disaster. Related cultural factors: Communication

S. Use media to calm people and encourage them to become active actors through their contribution to the process of managing a crisis generated by a disaster (natural or man-made), giving them an insightful perspective from the spot (places that are closest to the area where the disaster stroke) and thus help communities and families locating victims. Related cultural factors: Communication

T. Ensure collaboration among the different emergency services and civil society organisations to ensure that information is disseminated among them in a fast, clear, understandable, accurate and complete manner. Related cultural factors: Communication

U. Novel and complex disasters need more explanations and available information for the citizens. Related cultural factors: Communication

V. When communicating a risk, crisis or disaster relevant information, choose the proper type of media, as each communication platform has its own characteristics, influencing how, where and why a specific message is produced and delivered. Related cultural factors: Communication

W. Information on risks and actual disasters should come from popularly trusted sources and relayed through trusted communication channels. Related cultural factors: Communication, Attitudes toward authorities, Attitudes toward the media

X. Ensure interaction between citizens and authorities via social media or dedicated disaster mobile applications. Related cultural factors: Communication

Y. Use mainstream and social media to develop more integrative strategies on the part of institutions involved in crisis and disaster mitigation. Related cultural factors: Communication

Z. Understand how information gets to be generated, diffused, rolled in social and mainstream media environments and how it can be used creatively to enhance the capacity of the community to react and cope with disaster. Related cultural factors: Communication

AA. Choose the communication channel that is most used by the target population and take advantage of possible cultural characteristics that allow for a horizontal spread of information. Related cultural factors: Norms/values, Customs/traditions/rituals, Worldviews, Open-mindedness, Individual/collective memory, Local knowledge, Languages, Communication, Livelihoods, Rule of law, Power relations, Attitudes toward authorities, Attitudes toward the media, Attitudes toward environmental issues, Gender roles, Age-related roles, Ethnicity, Educational system, Density of active citizenship, Social networks, Social control, Social exclusion, Access and use of infrastructure/services

AB. Carry-out a pre-assessment of both the technological level of the community where a communication strategy is being implemented, to ensure that all communication platforms employed are accessible to the citizens, and the level of literacy, to ensure that the format of the message enables understanding. Related cultural factors: Communication

AC. Accept the risk of providing redundant information due to the existing multitude of social media channels and mobile phone apps and, rather than attempting to avoid redundancy, perceive overlapping information streams as strength, given that cultural groups and cultural factors overlap as well. Related cultural factors: Communication

AD. Use traditional media to influence the behaviour of the communities directly affected by man-made and natural disasters as a result of the fact that they have long played an important role in educating the public on disaster risk. However, media interventions appear to have a greater influence upon general behaviours and are not suitable for the provision of real time, context-specific information. Related cultural factors: Communication

AE. Provide accurate information in the risk communication strategies about different types of risk to ensure that citizens’ risk perception is based on rational analyses. Related cultural factors: Communication

AF. Use visual aids and visual communication when possible to avoid miscommunication, translation errors and semantics misinterpretation in sending messages to citizens. Related cultural factors: Communication, Languages

AG. Try to avoid discussing risk in terms of probabilities (interpretation of statistical information), but provide risk prevention measures. Related cultural factors: Communication

AH. The information about risks should have an affective code rendering it more salient and meaningful. For example, by using different symbols to emphasize important information, using letter grades to mark safety data or adding affective descriptions alongside numbers (i.e. excellent, good). Related cultural factors: Communication

AI. Undertake information campaigns to advise people about the disaster risks in their area. Make sure to have them in different languages and preferably through easily understandable drawings/symbols. Related cultural factors: Communication

AJ. In the event of a disaster, disseminate the location of the volunteers’ coordination centres, their contact information as well as the actual material needs of humanitarian responders to streamline the process in a coordinated manner. Related cultural factors: Communication

AK. Emphasizing the preparedness of authorities for terrorist attacks, increases risk perception in citizens. Related cultural factors: Communication, Attitudes toward authorities

AL. Risk perception changes based on media coverage of that particular disaster type so the policy should be that the coverage (i.e. number of times something is mentioned in the media) reflects real frequency of that hazard. This will create informed citizens with adequate risk perception. Related cultural factors: Communication

AM. Quickly debunk misleading information about your action during the crisis. Take into consideration that myths/false information perpetuated through media channels may also hinder response and recovery initiatives through their distorted representation of the behaviour and the needs of the affected populations. Related cultural factors: Communication

AN. Convey messages in at least three languages: the language of the country, an international language, the language of the minority with the highest share, as to ensure successful communication process with different cultural groups. Related cultural factors: Communication, Languages

AO. Identify specific groups (if any)andseek out themessagethatistheeasiest to understand (e.g.: children, drawings, colouring books, animations, games; the elderly: readable text, uppercase, brief). Related cultural factors: Communication, Age-related roles

AP. Adapt the language for communication to the lowest level of understanding to ensure successful communication process with different cultural groups. Related cultural factors: Communication

AQ. To improve behavioural change in disaster preparedness:

AQ.1. promote a “culture to help” by embedding shared cultural values (e.g. Mediterranean family value, or collective memory of neighbourhood help in previous disasters) in behavioural guidelines such as information leaflets or other campaigns;

AQ.2. design information brochures that appeal to citizens’ feelings which are more likely to activate or change behaviour, rather than merely providing “facts” about disaster risks;

AQ.3. appeal to citizens’ feelings of responsibility towards vulnerable others, e.g. family or community members, as a motivator that is stronger than self-protection.

Related cultural factors: Norms/values, Customs/traditions/rituals, Worldviews, Communication, Livelihoods

AR. Always provide ample information as it prevents suboptimal emotional behaviours. Related cultural factors: Communication

AS. When making leaflets position pictures that instigate negative emotion on the front, and pictures that instigate positive emotion next to recommendations as this will enhance preparedness. Related cultural factors: Communication

AT. Information should not consist only of statistical data and dry facts but should incorporate narratives, (e.g. stories by other victims or community members). Related cultural factors: Communication

AU. When preparing citizens for disaster use both short and long-term time-frames (e.g. mention immediate consequences but also life-time concerns). Related cultural factors: Communication

AV. Inform people about the ongoing clean-up, remediation, recovery, to facilitate broad-based, honest, and open discussion and resolution of issues regarding cause, blame, responsibility, and adequacy of response and eventually to document, formalize, and communicate lessons learned and rebuilding efforts. Related cultural factors: Communication

AW. Meet citizens’ information and emotional needs by delivering to them helpful, verified, empathetic information; notify them that the information process is an ongoing one. Related cultural factors: Communication

AX. Use emotional discourses in disaster media coverage to raise aid donations and invite members of the public to care about ‘distant suffering’. Related cultural factors: Communication

AY. Pay special attention to the way information is presented to the public by using a more personal and emotional tone. Related cultural factors: Communication

AZ. Use humour and “lol-culture” to continuously educate and engage target groups online, as well as stay up-to-date with relevant trendsRelated cultural factors: Communication, Age-related roles

BA. Raise awareness among people with special needs regarding the measures, which they need to take for their protection in case of disaster by organizing information campaigns, publishing and distribution of information materials tailored to their specific demands. Related cultural factors: Communication, Social exclusion, Access and use of infrastructure/services

BB. Pay special attention to the perception of increased vulnerability of some social groups and tailor messages according to the characteristics of each group. Related cultural factors: Communication, Social exclusion

BC. People with less education need to be given more detailed information. Related cultural factors: Communication, Educational system

BD. Consider cultural factors in disaster communication. Related cultural factors: Communication

Sources:

Further reading:

Bankoff, G. (2004b). The historical geography of disaster: ‘Vulnerability’ and ‘local knowledge’ in Western discourse. In G. Bankoff, G. Frerks, & D. Hilhorst (Eds.), Mapping Vulnerability: Disasters, Development and People (pp. 25–37). London and Sterling, VA: Earthscan.

Bankoff, G., Cannon, T., Krüger, F., & Schipper, E.L.F. (2015). Introduction: Exploring the links between cultures. In F. Krüger, G. Bankoff, T. Cannon, B. Orlowski, & E.L.F. Schipper (Eds.), Cultures and Disasters: Understanding cultural framings in disaster risk reduction (pp. 1–17). London and New York: Routledge.

De Brito Moreira R.., Castro Degrossi L., Porto de Albuquerque J. (2015). An experimental evaluation of a crowdsourcing-based approach for flood risk management; available at http://www.agora.icmc.usp.br/site/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Moreira_ESELAW_2015.pdf

De Groeve T., Casajus Valles A. (2015). Science Policy Interfaces in Disaster Risk Management in the EU - Mapping the support provided by science in the EU Civil Protection Mechanism. ISBN 978-92-79-52740-1, ISSN 1831-9424, doi:10.2788/023384; available at: http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC97968/lbna27520enn.pdf

Lajunen, T., Corry, A., Summala, H., & Hartley, L. (1998). Cross-cultural differences in drivers' self assessment of their perceptual-motor and safety skills: Australians and Finns. Personality and Individual Differences, 24, 539−550.

Quarantelli, E. L., Lessons from research: Findings on mass communications system behavior in the pre, trans and postimpact periods, Newark, DE: Disaster Research Center, 1991.

Reynolds Barbara and Matthew Seeger, “Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication as an Integrative Model”, in Journal of Health Communication, 2005

Siegrist, M., & Gutscher, H. (2006). Flooding risks: A comparison of lay people's perceptions and expert's assessments in Switzerland. Risk Analysis, 26(4), 971–979.